Too Good for Drugs & Violence—High School
PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVENESS

The U.S. Department of Education has established the following Principles of Effectiveness for addressing drug use and violence: (1) Conducting a needs assessment (2) Setting measurable goals and objectives (3) Effective research-based programs (4) Periodic evaluation.

Principle #1—Needs Assessment
Too Good for Drugs and Violence – High School – High School was also based on a Needs Assessment. The curriculum was designed to meet the drug and violence prevention needs of all high school students nationwide, as determined by research studies, student and teacher surveys and a focus group of teachers, counselors, parents and Safe and Drug-Free Schools coordinators from across the country. Because Too Good for Drugs and Violence – High School – High School is a universal program designed to meet the needs of the general high school student population, it is very likely to meet your students’ needs.

Principle #2—Measurable Goals and Objectives
Too Good for Drugs and Violence – High School – High School contains measurable goals and objectives to help you meet Principle of Effectiveness #2. The goal of Too Good for Drugs and Violence – High School – High School is to prevent or reduce drug use and violence among students. On the first page of each lesson, you will find measurable objectives students are expected to meet in that lesson.

Principle #3—Effective, Research-Based Programs
Too Good for Drugs & Violence meets Principle of Effectiveness #3. The strategies used in this program design have been proven effective in reducing or preventing drug use among youth. The following paragraphs summarize the key strategies and provide sources documenting their effectiveness.

Universal Education Strategy
Too Good for Drugs & Violence - High School (TGFD&V) is a universal drug and violence prevention program, targeting all high school students. This universal approach provides both primary prevention to low-risk students and secondary prevention to high-risk, aggressive students who are also in the classroom. When teachers are trained to provide the universal education program in the classroom, they become more likely to monitor and reinforce high-risk students’ competent use of social skills. Universal interventions also help all students in the class to become more adept at social problem-solving, thereby raising the rate of positive interactions that aggressive children have with their peers. (Lochman, Dunn & Klimes-Dougan, 1993). Research indicates an additional benefit of a universal prevention program which teaches conflict resolution and negotiation skills: when students learn to resolve their conflicts autonomously and constructively, they stop referring their conflicts to their teachers, which allows teachers to spend more time on instruction and less time on discipline problems. (Johnson, Johnson, Dudley & Acikgoz, 1994).

Long-term, Multi-Year Programming
TGFD&V provides extensive prevention education throughout a student’s years in high school. It provides 14 lessons in one grade level plus 12 additional booster lessons for other high school grade levels. When used with its companion K-8 programs, Too Good for Drugs II and Too Good for Violence, TGFD&V provides continuous and consistent prevention programming for students in grades K-12. Elias, Weissberg, et al., (1994) recommend comprehensive, multi-year, multi-component approaches over more traditional single-intervention ones. The evidence which shows that effects decay over time in the absence of continued instruction (Botvin, et al., 1990; Ellickson, Bell & McGuigan, 1993) seems to support the need for long-term programs which expose students to skills and concepts at each grade level. Preventing Crime: What Works, What Doesn’t, What’s Promising: A Report to the United States Congress, which the New York Times calls “the most comprehensive study ever of crime prevention,” concludes that “longer-term, multi-component strategies located in natural school settings, using staff readily available to the schools, employing methods that are acceptable to regular school staff are most likely to produce the strongest and most durable effects.” (Sherman, et al., 1997).

Developmental Programming
TGFD&V builds skills and uses age-appropriate concepts and teaching methods. Research has shown that opportunities for active participation should be developmentally appropriate to the student’s current level of skills, in order to motivate the student to engage in the learning process (Csikszentmihalyi & Larson, 1980).

Reducing Risk Factors and Building Protective Factors
TGFD&V reduces risk factors and builds protective factors. Research has shown that reducing risk factors and building protective factors leads to resiliency in youth. Resiliency is the ability to lead healthy lives and avoid involvement in drug use, violence and other problem behaviors in spite of risk factors. (Hawkins & Catalano, 1992; Hawkins, Catalano & Miller, 1992; Hawkins, et al. 2000; Loeber & Dishion, 1983; Catalano, et al. 1996; Werner, 1992; Benson, 1997). Several recent reviews summarize the research literature linking risk factors (such as conduct problems, aggression, low levels of self-control and social competency skills, and low attachment to school) with crime. (Gottfredson, Sealock & Koper, 1996; Hawkins, Catalano & Miller, 1992; Howell, Krisberg, Wilson & Hawkins, 1995).

A Comprehensive, Multi-Faceted Approach
TGFD&V is a comprehensive drug and violence prevention program employing multiple components and strategies. Studies show that multiple strategies mediate drug use (Hansen, 1996). Normative education and resistance skills in combination are more effective than resistance skills alone. (Hansen & Graham, 1991). Combining social problem-solving skills with education on the relationship between drug use and violence has also shown positive effects. (Gainer, Webster & Champion, 1993). It appears that the most effective universal prevention programs implemented in schools are those that involve more intensive social or life skills training and often include homework assignments with parents. (Donaldson et al, 1994).

Social Development Model
TGFD&V is based on the “Social Development Model,” a theory of change which explains positive development in terms of three protective factors: social bonding with positive people and institutions; adoption of non-violent, pro-social norms; and development of social and emotional skills or competencies. According to this model, the development of skills depends on opportunities to participate, and reinforcement, rewards or recognition for skillful involvement. (Hawkins, Farrington & Catalano, 1998; Hawkins & Weiss, 1985; Catalano, et al. 1996; Mortimore, 1995).

Normative Change
Normative education is an integral part of the TGFD&V program design. Drug use and violence are influenced by normative values, which are perceptions about other people’s attitudes and behavior—such as “Only chickens or sissies walk away from a fight,” or “Everybody drinks.” Many students incorrectly believe that fighting/violence is acceptable, appropriate and necessary, and that most people their age fight to solve their conflicts and approve of other people fighting or using violence. Many believe that experimenting with drugs is a normal part of growing up, and that most teenagers use drugs. Normative education corrects these misperceptions by providing accurate information about the percentage of youth who are actually involved in these behaviors, and also about the percentage who would disapprove if their friends did so. Several studies show normative education to be a successful prevention strategy (Donaldson, 1994; Dent, et al., 1995; Botvin, et al., 1995; Hanson & Graham, 1991). This type of programming has produced the most consistently successful preventive effects with the general population (Donaldson, et al, 1996).

Social Skills and Emotional Competency
TGFD&V is highly focused on critical skill areas. The curriculum includes a wide variety of social and emotional competency skills. Social competence is the ability to solve a problem or cope with a social demand without creating new problems. Socially competent persons successfully recognize and control their emotions so that they can make socially competent choices in problem situations. Poor social competency - as measured by self, peers, teachers and other adults - is related to later problem behaviors. (Block et al., 1988; Shedler & Block, 1990; Kellam et al. 1981; Smith & Fogg, 1978). Increased social and emotional competence is associated with greater academic success and reductions in violence, drug use and other problem behaviors. These skills include: anger management, empathy and perspective-taking, social problem-solving, media resistance, social resistance, communication and general social skills for building and maintaining positive relationships. (Greenberg, Kusche, Cook & Quamma, 1995). There is evidence that schools can promote the development of skills to avoid violent behavior through the use of classroom curricula that seek to promote social competence (Goleman, 1995) and teach skills for anger management, impulse control and empathy (Grossman, et al., 1997). Preventing Crime: What Works, What Doesn’t, What’s Promising: A Report to the United States Congress concludes that “the preponderance of evidence is positive” for the effectiveness of “comprehensive instructional programs that focus on a range of social competency skills (e.g., developing self-control, stress-management, responsible decision-making, social problem-solving and communication skills) and that are delivered over a long period of time to continually reinforce skills.” (Sherman, 1997).

Social Influences
TGFD&V includes an emphasis on social influences such as advertising and media as well as the influence of friends and family members as role models. Several studies suggest that a focus on social influences is a critical aspect of effective prevention education (Hansen, 1992; Pentz, M. et al., 1989; Dielman, et al, 1992; Ellickson, P.L. & Bell, R.M., 1990; Botvin, et al, 1990; Botvin, et al., 1995; Donaldson, et al, 1996; Epstein, et al, 1999).

Information About the Harmful Effects of Drug Use
TGFD&V includes information about the harmful effects of using alcohol, tobacco and other drugs. Research has shown that knowledge of the consequences of drug use is not enough to prevent adolescents from using drugs; however, drug information is seen by researchers to be an effective prevention strategy insofar as it causes students to perceive themselves as personally susceptible to the likely consequences of drug use. (Hansen, et al., 1991).

Caring Classroom Climate/Culture to Promote Bonding
TGFD&V promotes a caring and supportive classroom environment and a sense of belonging. Studies show that schools in which students feel as though they belong and that people in the school care about them experience less disorder and student misbehavior (Duke, 1989). The teaching methods and teacher tips used in TGFD&V are designed to promote bonding. Studies show that students who bond with positive people and institutions, such as the teacher and the school, are less likely to become involved in violence and other problem behaviors. (O’Donnell, Hawkins & Abbott, 1995).

Cooperative Learning
TGFD&V uses cooperative learning as a key teaching method. Cooperative learning activities allow all students to participate and to have responsibilities. Research has shown that cooperative learning activities promote student’s development of pro-social skills and academic achievement. (Marr, 1997; Slavin, 1996; Cinelli, et al., 1994). Cooperative learning strategies have been used in several prevention projects which demonstrated reductions in delinquent behavior. (Gottfredson, 1986; Gottfredson, 1987; Gottfredson, 1990; Gottfredson, Gottfredson, & Hybl, 1993).

Interactive Teaching Techniques
TGFD&V is highly interactive. Research shows that interactive programs that emphasize interpersonal skills and use a participatory teaching approach are more effective than programs which rely on moral exhortation, scare tactics or self-esteem building (Bosworth & Sailes, 1993; Gottfredson, 1997). A meta-analysis suggests that interactive methods are crucial to effective prevention programming (Tobler & Stratton, 1997).

Based on Social Learning and Social Cognitive Theories
TGFD&V is based on a strong theoretical background. Social Learning Theory proposes that aggression is influenced by the developing child’s cognitive resources, which may be modified by teaching cognitive skills such as recognizing conflict cues (Dodge & Newman, 1981), generating non-aggressive solutions to interpersonal conflicts (Richard & Dodge, 1982), and predicting consequences of aggressive responses (Guerra, 1989; Guerra & Slaby, 1989). Studies indicate that Social Learning Theory is a feasible theory for explaining drug involvement in the young. (Fournet, 1990). Social-cognitive theory, an extension of social learning theory, has formed the basis of several violence prevention and conflict resolution programs. These interventions include four components: (1) information designed to increase awareness and knowledge of the consequences of behavior; (2) social and self regulative skills development aimed at translating knowledge into preventive action; (3) opportunities for guided practice and corrective feedback in applying the skills in high-risk situations, resulting in skills enhancement and self-efficacy; and (4) changes in social norms and social supports for desired behavior change. Studies support the use of a social cognitive theoretical approach to school-based violence prevention (Durant, et al,, 1996). TGFD&V teaches skills according to the following method emphasized in Social Learning Theory: a) teach/model the skill b) role play/practice the skill c) reinforce the skill d) provide feedback on skill performance and e) generalize the skill by encouraging its transfer to new situations and circumstances, with a variety of people and in a variety of times and places (Bandura, 1977; Bandura, 1986).

Frequent and Diverse Role Play Situations
TGFD&V uses role play situations involving not only fighting/violence and drug use, but also other problem behaviors, such as skipping school, stealing, vandalizing, etc. Research has shown that youth who are involved in one health-compromising behavior are likely to engage in others. Research has established high correlations between these behaviors (Jessor & Jessor, 1977; Jessor, R. 1982). Studies also show that role-playing is effective in reducing student’s racial prejudice. (MacGregor, 1993). Research comparing prevention programs shows that programs which include frequent role-playing, rehearsal of skills and behavioral modeling are more effective than those which do not (Ringwalt, et al. 1994).

Anti-Bullying Norms, Policies and Strategies
Too Good for Violence promotes anti-bullying school norms and policies and provides teachers and students with positive strategies for dealing with bullying. Studies show that anti-bullying policies along with encouragement of appropriate behavior can dramatically reduce bullying at school and lower the likelihood of later aggression and delinquency which often follows (Olweus, 1994). The definition of school violence has traditionally been assault, theft and vandalism; however, data show that far more students are involved in bully/victim experiences than are victims of assault, theft and vandalism. Research suggests that school climate improves only when schools develop and implement a comprehensive anti-bullying plan designed to teach prosocial behavior, limit aggressive behavior and teach skills that promote positive interactions between students. (Batsche & Knoff, 1994).

Bias, Stereotypes, Prejudice and Discrimination
TGFD&V emphasizes recognizing, avoiding and handling bias, stereotypes, prejudice and discrimination in effective, non-violent ways. Activities are designed to develop students’ social perspective taking abilities and empathy. Meta-analysis has integrated findings from studies that examined the effectiveness of role-playing and antiracist teaching to reduce students’ racial prejudice. Analysis of data from 26 studies indicated that role-playing and antiracist teaching significantly reduced racial prejudice and were similarly effective. (McGregor, 1993).

Parental Involvement
TGFD&V uses “Home Pages to promote discussion and reinforcement of concepts and skills students learn in the classroom. “Home Pages,” which contain parenting tips and resources, may be copied and inserted into your school’s newsletter. The Looking for More? section following each lesson includes a Home Workout, interactive exercises for parents and students to do together. Research has found that students whose parents participated in a school-based intervention gained more knowledge and expressed more favorable attitudes toward positive health practices than those whose parents did not participate (Flay, 1987; Donaldson et al, 1994; Hawkins et al, 1992; Nader, et al., 1996; Werch, et al., 1991).

Community Involvement
TGFD&V contains community activities in the Looking for More? section following each lesson. These actiities are designed to help youth to feel bonded to their community and encourage them to become involved in their community in meaningful ways. Research shows that a school-based program such as TGFD&V is more effective when nested within a coordinated, well-designed prevention system involving the entire community (Farrington, 1996).

Fidelity of Implementation
TGFD&V includes a number of tools designed to promote fidelity of implementation. When a prevention program is implemented with fidelity, the replication includes all the key elements and uses them as they were designed to be used. Fidelity of implementation tools for TGFD&V include scripted lessons, evaluation materials, instructor checklists and strongly recommended teacher training.

Empirically Based
In addition to its strong theoretical foundation and research base, TGFD&V is also empirically based, having grown out of the Foundation’s experience in teaching drug and violence prevention lessons in the Tampa, Florida schools. Every activity is taught in culturally diverse settings.


Principle #4—Periodic Evaluations
To help you meet Principle of Effectiveness #4,Too Good for Drugs and Violence – High School – High School Core Curriculum provides evaluation instruments for measuring your prevention outcomes and process.

Additional Research Resources:

Principles of Effectiveness

Bibliography

Logic Model (download PDF)